The Traces of Oppression and Trauma to Ethnic Minorities in Indonesia Who Experienced Rape on the 12 May 1998 Tragedy: A Review of Literature

Anas Ahmadi

doi:10.29333/ejecs/744

Authors

Anas Ahmadi Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/744

Keywords:

ethnic minorities, literary, oppression, rape, trauma psychology, women

Abstract

This study explores oppression and trauma to ethnic Chinese minority women in Indonesia who experienced rape on the 12 May 1998 tragedy through literary data. The research method used was qualitative-narrative. The data source used was a novel titled Mei Merah (MM). The data analysis technique was carried out through stages that identified literary texts related to women's oppression from ethnic minorities; clarification of literary texts related to the oppression of women from ethnic minorities; data exposure; and data validation. The results show that ethnic Chinese women in Indonesia who experienced rape undergo trauma, impacting their psychological conditions. This was shown through Humaira, the novel’s character, who experienced a phase of trauma, a phase of madness, and a phase of suicide due to rape. It happened because of a profound traumatic experience. Moreover, ethnic minority women who are raped often go abroad to remove traces because they feel ashamed and traumatized by being raped.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

Anas Ahmadi, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia

Associate Prof. Dr. Anas Ahmadi,M.Pd.

Lecturer in Indonesian Language and Literature, Universitas Negeri Surabaya

ORCID ID : http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2583-2703

Scopus ID : 57201349400

WoS ID : AAL-3863-2020

References

Ahmadi, A. (2012). Kajian budaya [Cultural studies]. Unesa University Press.

Ahmadi, A. (2017). Ecopsychology studies in Indonesia. Lambert Publishing.

Ahmadi, A. (2018). Tipikal manusia biofilia dan nekrofilia dalam novel Indonesia: Perspektif Ecopsychology [Typical human biophilic and necrophilic in Indonesian novel: Ecopsychology perspective]. Penelitian tidak diterbitkan. Direktorat Riset Penelitian dan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat [Unpublished research. Directorate of Research Research and Community Service].

Ahmadi, A. (2019a). Psikologi Jungian, film, dan sastra [Jungian psychology, film, literature]. Temalitera.

Ahmadi, A. (2019b). Teachers as psychologist: Experience in beginner level of creative writing classes using behavior modification. International Journal of Learning, Teaching & Educational Research, 18(12), 101-115. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.12.7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.12.7

Ahmadi, A. (2019c). The use of SINTA (science and technology index) database to map the development of literature study in indonesia. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering & Technology (IJMET), 10 (2), 918-923.

Ahmadi, A. (2020a). Study of criminal psychology in Indonesian literature. International Journal of Criminology & Sociology, 9, 1285-1291. https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2020.09.147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-4409.2020.09.147

Ahmadi, A. (2020b). Promoting personality psychology through literary learning: An appreciative-reflective study. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity & Change, 11(7), 529-540.

Ahmadi, A., Ghazali, A. S., Dermawan, T., & Maryaeni. (2019). Ecopsychology and psychology of literature: Concretization of human biophilia that loves the environment in two Indonesian novels. International Journal of Literary Humanities, 17(1), 47-59. http://doi.org/10.18848/2327-7912/CGP/v17i01/47-59 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-7912/CGP/v17i01/47-59

Akbar, C. (2018). Cerita pemerkosaan, kisah yang lenyap dari tragedi Mei 1998 [A rape story, a story that disappeared from the May 1998 tragedy]. https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1088332/cerita-pemerkosaan-kisah-yang-lenyap-dari-tragedi-mei-1998/full&view=ok

Akinsola, I. T. (2020). Nollywood Reception Preferences among Selected Multilingual Nigerian Undergraduates in the University of Ibadan: Does Ethnicity Still Matter?. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 4(1), 38-48. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/8210

Anggraeni, D. (2011). Does multicultural Indonesia include its ethnic Chinese? Wacana, 13(2), 256-278. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17510/wjhi.v13i2.23

Ardianto, R. (2018). Pemerkosaan massal, 1998 pil pahit perempuan Tionghoa [Mass rape, 1998 Chinese women's bitter pill]. Alina.id. https://www.alinea.id/nasional/pemerkosaan-massal-1998-pil-pahit-perempuan-tionghoa-b1Uzn9b7x

Aspinall, P. J. (2020). Ethnic/racial terminology as a form of representation: A critical review of the lexicon of collective and specific terms in use in Britain. Genealogy, 4(87), 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy4030087

Auerbach, C. F., & Silverstein, L. B. (2003). Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis. New York University Press.

Balaev, M. (2008). Trends in literary trauma theory. Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal, 41(2), 149-166. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i40167319

Balaev, M. (2014). Literary trauma theory reconsidered. In M. Balaev (Ed.), Contemporary approaches in literary trauma theory (pp. 1-14). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137365941_1

Barabantseva, E. (2014). Overseas Chinese, ethnic minorities, and nationalism: De-centering China. Routledge.

Beauvoir, S. (1961). The second sex. Bantam Books.

Bensel, T., & Sample, L. L. (2017). Collective sexual violence in Bosnia and Sierra Leone: A comparative case study analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 61(10), 1075–1098. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624 X15609704 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X15609704

Black, D. (1998). Psychological trauma: A developmental approach. Gaskell.

Bouson, J. B. (1999). Quiet as it’s kept: Shame, trauma, and race in the novels of Toni Morrison. State University of New York Press.

Brito, S. J. (1984). Change in American Indian world views illustrated by oral narratives and contemporary poetry. Explorations in Ethnic Studies, 7(2), 27-36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/ees.1984.7.2.27

Brothers, D. (2007). Toward a psychology of uncertainty: Trauma‐centered psychoanalysis. Taylor & Francis.

Brown, S. (2020). Hemingway, trauma and masculinity: In the garden of the uncanny. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19230-3

Çakirtaş, O. (2019). Literature and psychology: Writing, trauma and the self. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Cao, H. (2009). Ethnic minorities and regional development in Asia: Reality and challenges. Amsterdam University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089640918

Carll, E. K. (2007). Trauma psychology: Issues in violence, disaster, health, and illness. Praeger Publishers.

Carothers, D., & Parfitt, C. M. (2017). Disability or Language Difference: How Do We Decide?. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 1(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5788 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5788

Caruth, C. (1996). Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Changfoot, N. (2009). The second sex’s continued relevance for equality and difference feminisms. European Journal of Women’s Studies, 16(1), 11–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506808098532 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1350506808098532

Chau, R. C. M., & Yu, S. W. K. (2001). Social exclusion of Chinese people in Britain. Critical Social Policy, 21(1), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/026101830102100103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026101830102100103

Claassen, E. (2012). Author representations in literary reading. John Benjamins Publishing. Company. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lal.11

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2010). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Coblentz, J., & Jacobs, B. (2018). Mary daly’s the church and the second sex after fifty years of us Catholic feminist theology. Theological Studies, 79(3), 543–565. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040563918784781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0040563918784781

Coppel, C. A. (2002). Studying ethnic Chinese in Indonesia. Singapore Society of Asian Studies.

Coyle, J. J. (2021). Russia's interventions in ethnic conflicts: The case of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Palgrave. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59573-9

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2020). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications.

Crews, F. C. (1970). Psychoanalysis and literary process. Winthrop Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3684558

Crosthwaite, P. (2016). Trauma, postmodernism and the aftermath of world war II. Palgrave Macmillan.

Currie, M. (2010). About time: Narrative, fiction and the philosophy of time. Edinburgh University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/UPO9780748630400

Daiyao, K. (2002). “Honourable resolutions”: Gendered violence, ethnicity, and the nation. Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, 27(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 030437540202700205 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030437540202700205

Das, B. K. (2018). Twentieth century literary criticism. Atlantic Publishers

Davison, G. C., & Neale, J. M. (1990). Abnormal psychology: An experimental clinical approach. Wiley.

De Graaf, H. J., & Pigeaud, G. (1984). Chinese Muslims in Java in the 15th and 16th centuries: The Malay annals of Semarang and Cerbon. Monash University Press.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2013). The landscape of qualitative research. Sage Publications.

DiBattista, M. (2011). Novel characters: A Genealogy. John Wiley & Sons. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444327984

Dinnerstein, L. (1991). Antisemitism in America. Oxford University Press.

Douglas, J. D. (2015). Social meanings of suicide. Princeton University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400868117

Faden, J., & Citrome, L. (2019). Resistance is not futile: Treatment-refractory schizophrenia – overview, evaluation and treatment. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 20(1)11-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2018.1543409 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2018.1543409

Farley, J. E. (2012). Majority-minority relations. Prentice Hall.

Femi-Ajao, O., Kendal, S., & Lovell, K. (2018). A qualitative systematic review of published work on disclosure and help-seeking for domestic violence and abuse among women from ethnic minority populations in the UK. Ethnicity & Health, 25(6),1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1447652 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1447652

Fought, C. (2012). Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511997068.019

Fox, A. (2016). Speaking pictures: Neuropsychoanalysis and authorship in film and literature. Indiana University Press.

Freud, S. (1943). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. Liveright Publishing Corporation.

Gairola, R. K., & Jayawikrama, S. (2021). Memory, trauma, Asia: Oriental affect in contemporary literature and culture. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315146669

Gold, S. N., Cook, J. M., & Dalenberg, C. J. (Eds.). (2017). APA handbook of trauma psychology: Volume 1, Foundation in knowledge. American Psychological Association

Gómez, J. M. (2019). Isn’t it all about victimization? (Intra)cultural pressure and cultural betrayal trauma in ethnic minority college women. Violence Against Women, 25(10), 1211–1225. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218811682 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218811682

Green, J. L. (2004). Uncovering collective rape: A comparative study of political sexual violence. International Journal of Sociology 34(1), 97-116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2004.11043123

Gunne, S., & Brigley, T. Z. (2012). Feminism, literature and rape narratives: Violence and violation. Taylor and Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203479735

Haehnel, B. (2010). Slavery in art and literature: Approaches to trauma, memory and visuality. Berlin Frank & Timme.

Haller, B. M., Kolind, T., Hunt, G., & Søgaard, T. F. (2020). Experiencing police violence and insults: Narratives from ethnic minority men in Denmark. Nordic Journal of Criminology, 21(2), 170-185. https://doi.org/10.1080/2578983x.2020.1839712 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2578983X.2020.1839712

Hart, D. V. (1962). Overseas Americans in Southeast Asia: Fact in fiction. Practical Anthropology, 9(2), 60–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966200900202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966200900202

Haycock, D. A., & Deliberto, T. (2016). Characters on the couch: Exploring psychology through literature and film. Greenwood.

Hazelwood, R. R., & Burgess, W. (2001). Practical aspects of rape investigation: A multidisciplinary approach. CRC Press.

Hebbar, R. J. (2013). Modeling minority women: Heroines in African and Asian American fiction. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203942574

Helms, J. E., Nicolas, G., & Green, C. E. (2012). Racism and ethnoviolence as trauma: Enhancing professional and research training. Traumatology, 18(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610396728 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610396728

Hendry, P. M., Mitchell, R., & Eaton, P. W. (2018). Troubling method: Narrative research as being. Peter Lang. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3726/b13376

Hennink, M., Hutter, I., & Bailey, A. (2020). Qualitative research methods. Sage Publications.

Himawati, C. L. (2017). Opresi berlapis perempuan etnis Tionghoa: Pemerkosaan massal terhadap perempuan etnis Tionghoa dalam Tragedi Mei 1998 di Jakarta [Layered oppression of ethnic Chinese women: Mass rapes of ethnic Chinese women in the May 1998 Tragedy in Jakarta]. Jurnal Politik, 2(2), 338-364. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7454/jp.v2i2.76

Hogan, P. C. (2018). Literature and emotion. Routledge.

Holland, N. N. (2006). Holland's guide to psychoanalytic psychology and literature and psychology. Oxford University Press.

Horeck, T. (2004). Public rape: Representing violation in fiction and film. Routledge.

Horowitz, D. (1985). Ethnic groups in conflict. University of California Press.

Horowitz, D. L. (2011). Ethnic groups in conflict: With a new preface. University of California Press.

Horvitz, D. M. (2000). Literary trauma: Sadism, memory, and sexual violence in American women's fiction. State University of New York Press.

Howitt, D., & Cramer, D. (2014). Introduction to research methods in psychology. Pearson

Ibsch, E. (1993). Fact and fiction in postmodernist writing. Journal of Literary Studies, 9(2), 185-193, https://doi.org/10.1080/02564719308530040 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02564719308530040

Ibsch, E., Schram, D. H., & Steen, G. (2001). The psychology and sociology of literature: In honor of Elrud Ibsch. John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/upal.35

Jayawickrama, S. (2019). Trauma, memory, and healing in Asian literature and culture. Springer.

Jobe, T. H., & Harrow, M. (2010). Schizophrenia course, long-term outcome, recovery, and prognosis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(4), 220–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410378034 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410378034

Jones, E., & Wessely, S. (2006). Psychological trauma: A historical perspective. Psychiatry, 5(7), 217–220. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.04.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.04.011

Jones, J. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed.). McGraw-¬Hill.

Kidd, K. B. (2011). Freud in Oz: At the intersections of psychoanalysis and children's literature. University of Minnesota Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5749/minnesota/9780816675821.001.0001

Kiell, N. (1990). Psychoanalysis, psychology, and literature: A bibliography. Scarecrow.

Kochhar-Lindgren, G. (1993). Narcissus transformed: The textual subject in psychoanalysis and literature. Pennsylvania State University Press.

Kresna, M. (2017). Ita F Nadia: Perkosaan masal itu terjadi [Ita F Nadia: Mass rape happened]. https://tirto.id/perkosaan-massal-1998-itu-terjadi-cpa2

Lampert, J. (2011). Children's fiction about 9/11:Ethnic, heroic and national identities. Routledge.

Lestari, S. (2018). Perkosaan Mei 1998 'tak pernah terungkap, tak pernah dituntaskan' [May 1998 rape 'never revealed, never resolved']. BBC News Indonesia. https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/dunia-44134808

Lewis, N. (2008). Facts and fiction: Literary instructions on public school integration in Ernest Hill’s satisfied with nothin’. Law & Literature, 20(1), 115-126. https://doi.org/ 10.1525/lal.2008.20.1.115 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/lal.2008.20.1.115

Lipscomb, A. E. (2020). You have the right to exclaim your pain: Honoring black familial voices impacted by police induced trauma in the United States. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 7(1), 131-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/296 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/296

Loncar, M., Henigsberg, N., & Hrabac, P. (2010). Mental health consequences in men exposed to sexual abuse during the war in Croatia and Bosnia. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(2), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509334288 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509334288

Lune, H., & Berg, B. L. (2018). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Pearson India Education Services Pvt.

Ma, X. (2018). Ethnic minority empowerment and marginalization: Yi labour migrants outside China’s autonomous regions. China Information, 33(2), 146–164. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0920203X18800192 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0920203X18800192

Macdonald, C. J. H. (2007). Uncultural behavior: An anthropological investigation of suicide in the southern Philippines. University of Hawai'i Press.

Mardorossian, C. M. (2010). Rape by proxy in contemporary Caribbean women's fiction. In S. Gunne & Z. B. Thompson (Eds.), Violence and Violation (pp. 23-37). Routledge.

Maruatona, T. (2014). Lifelong learning for social inclusion of ethnic minorities in Botswana. Education. Citizenship and Social Justice, 10(1), 37–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1746197914558397 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1746197914558397

Maryland. (1978). Ethnic and cultural studies: A bibliography. Office of School Media Services.

McDonald, J. (2007). American ethnic history: Themes and perspectives. Rutgers University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780748628636

McKinley, C. E., Boel-Studt, S., Renner, L. M., Figley, C. R., Billiot, S., & Theall, K. P. (2020). The historical oppression scale: Preliminary conceptualization and measurement of historical oppression among indigenous peoples of the United States. Transcultural Psychiatry, 57(2), 288–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461520909605 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461520909605

McMahon, S., & Seabrook, R. C. (2019). Reasons for nondisclosure of campus sexual violence by sexual and racial/ethnic minority women. Journal of Student Affairs Research & Practice, 57(4), 417-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2019.1662798 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19496591.2019.1662798

Mendez, L., Mozley, M. M., & Kerig, P. K. (2020). Associations among trauma exposure, callous-unemotionality, race or ethnicity, and gang involvement in justice-involved youth. Criminal Justice & Behavior, 47(4), 457–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0093854819897940 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819897940

Morrison, A. P., & Larkin, W. (2015). Trauma and hearing voices. In W. Larkins, & A. P. Morrison (Eds.), Trauma and psychosis: New directions for theory and therapy (pp. 162-194). Routledge.

Mueser, K. T., Goodman, L. B., Trumbetta, S. L., Rosenberg, S. D., Osher, F. C., Vidaver, R., Auciello, P., & Foy, D. W. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in severe mental illness. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 66(3), 493–499. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.66.3.493 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.66.3.493

Murphy, M. J. (2009). Can “men” stop rape?: Visualizing gender in the “my strength is not for hurting” rape prevention campaign. Men and Masculinities, 12(1), 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X09331752 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X09331752

Nadal, B. M., & Calvo, M. (2018). Trauma in contemporary literature: Narrative and representation. Routledge.

Nader, K. (2015). Understanding and assessing trauma in children and adolescents: Measures, methods, and youth in context. Routledge.

Neuman, W. L. (2020). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Pearson Education.

Nevid, J. S. (2014). Essentials of psychology: Concepts and applications. Cengage Learning.

Oatley, K. (1999). Why fiction may be twice as true as fact: Fiction as cognitive and emotional simulation. Review of General Psychology, 3(2), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 1089-2680.3.2.101 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.3.2.101

Ogden, B. H., & Ogden, T. H. (2013). The analyst's ear and the critic's eye: Rethinking psychoanalysis and literature. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203523063

Oudenhoven, J. P., & Willemsen, T. M. (2020). Ethnic minorities: Social psychological perspectives. Garlan Science. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003077381

Panggabean, S. R., & Smith, B. (2011). Explaining anti-Chinese Riots in late 20th century Indonesia. World Development, 39(2), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev. 2009.11.036 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2009.11.036

Peach, L. (2007). Contemporary Irish and Welsh women's fiction: Gender, desire and power. University of Wales Press.

Pearson, R. C. (2005). Fact or fiction?: Narrative and reality in the Mexican telenovela. Television & New Media, 6(4), 400–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476405279863 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476405279863

Phillips, A. (2009). Promises, promises essays on psychoanalysis and literature. Basic Books.

Picard, A. M., & Valendinova, K. (2017). From illiteracy to literature: Psychoanalysis and reading. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315659862

Porter, J., & Williams, L. M. (2011). Intimate violence among underrepresented groups on a college campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 3210-3224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510393011

Pranoto, N. (2018). Mei Merah 1998 [Red May 1998]. Yayasan Obor Indonesia.

Purdey, J. (2002). Problematizing the place of victims in reformasi Indonesia a contested truth about the May 1998 violence. Asian Survey, 42(4), 605–622. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/as.2002.42.4.605

Rambo, S. (2010). Haunted (by the) gospel: Theology, trauma, and literary theory in the twenty-first century. PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, 125(4), 936-941. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2010.125.4.936 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2010.125.4.936

Rancour-Laferriere, D. (1989). Russian literature and psychoanalysis. John Benjamins Publishing Company. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/llsee.31

Rand, N. (2004). Psychoanalysis and literature. Palgrave Macmillan.

Resick, P. A. (2014). Stress and trauma. Taylor & Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315820125

Rezaei, A., & Seyyedrezaei, S. H. (2013). The contribution of psychological theories in literary criticism. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 1908–1911. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.056 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.07.056

Rockwell, J. (1974). Fact in fiction: The use of literature in the systematic study of society. Routledge & K. Paul.

Rogers, R. (1994). Self and other: Object relations in psychoanalysis and literature. New York University Press.

Ross, M. H. (2017). Cultural contestation in ethnic conflict. Cambridge University Press.

Ruitenbeek, H. M. (1964). Psychoanalysis and literature. Dutton.

Sadli, S., & Yentriyani, A. (2008). Documentation report: Time to settle the sense of security; A step toward the fulfillment of rights for women victim of sexual violence in May 1998 Riot. National Commission on Violence against Women.

Santos, C. E., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (Eds.). (2015). Studying ethnic identity: Methodological and conceptual approaches across disciplines. American Psychological Association. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/14618-000

Schlee, G. (2017). Difference and sameness as modes of integration: Anthropological perspectives on ethnicity and religion. Berghahn DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvw04d45

Shneidman, E. S., Farberow, N. L., & Litman, R. E. (1983). The psychology of suicide. Jason Aronson.

Sielke, S. (2009). Reading rape: The rhetoric of sexual violence in American literature and culture, 1790-1990. Princeton University Press.

Smedley, A. (1993). Race in North America: Origin and evolution of a worldview. Westview Press.

Soper, C. A. (2019). Evolution of suicide. Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77300-1

Sowerwine, C. (2000). Existentialism, resistance, and the second sex. Australian Feminist Studies, 15(33), 317-323. https://doi.org/10.1080/713611983 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/713611983

Stahl, D. C., & Williams, M. (2010). Imag(in)ing the war in Japan: Representing and responding to trauma in postwar literature and film. Brill. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004182981.i-362

Suryadinata, L. (1976). Indonesian policies toward the Chinese minority under the new order. Asian Survey, 16(8), 770–787. https://doi.org/10.2307/2643578 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2643578

Szczepański, M. S. (1997). Ethnic minorities & ethnic majority: Sociological studies of ethnic relations in Poland. Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Tan, E. K. B. (2001). From sojourners to citizens: Managing the ethnic Chinese minority in Indonesia and Malaysia. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 24(6), 949-978. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870120077922 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870120077922

Tan, M. G. (2005). Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia. Encyclopedia of diasporas, 795–808. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_82 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_82

Tan, M. G., & Dahana, A. (1997). The ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: Issues of identity. In L. Suryadinata (Ed.), Ethnic Chinese as southeast Asians (pp. 33-71). Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07635-9_2

Townsend, T. G., Kaltman, S., Saleem, F., Coker-Appiah, D. S., & Green, B. L. (2020). Ethnic disparities in trauma-related mental illness: Is ethnic identity a buffer? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(11–12), 2164–2188. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605 17701454 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517701454

Tribunella, E. L. (2010). Melancholia and maturation: The use of trauma in American. University of Tennessee Press.

Tsimpouki, T. (2019). Agency in complicity: The aesthetics of trauma in constance fenimore Woolson’s ‘Miss Grief.’ In O. Çakirtaş (Ed.), Literature and psychology: Writing, trauma and the self (pp. 155-174). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Ullah, I. (2020). War memory, psychological trauma, and literary witnessing: Afghan cultural production in focus. Sage Open, 10(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 2158244020961128 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020961128

Urban, G. S. (2013). The eternal newcomer: Chinese Indonesian identity from Indonesia to the United States. LUX: A Journal of Transdisciplinary Writing and Research, 3(1), 1-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5642/lux.201303.19

Van der Kolk, B. A., & Bessel, A. (1987). Psychological trauma. Psychiatric Publishing.

Van der Laan, J. M. (2010). Frankenstein as science fiction and fact. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 30(4), 298–304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467610373822 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0270467610373822

Varshney, A. (2008). Ethnic conflict and civic life: Hindus and Muslims in India. Yale University Press.

Verkuyten, M. (2018). The social psychology of ethnic identity. Taylor & Francis Group. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315109527

Wandor, M. (2008). The author is not dead, merely somewhere else: Creative writing reconceived. Palgrave Macmillan.

Wellek, R., & Warren, A. (2019). Theory of literature. Snova.

Wilson, S. (1995). The cradle of violence: Essays on psychiatry, psychoanalysis and literature. Kingsley.

Yetman, N. R. (1999). Majority and minority: The dynamics of race and ethnicity in American life. Allyn and Bacon.

Yothers, B. (2019). Melville's mirrors: Literary criticism and America's most elusive author. Camden House.

Yuliawati, P. S. (2018). Deretan kisah mengerikan pemerkosaan massal Mei 1998 [A series of gruesome stories of mass rape in May 1998]. CNN Indonesia. https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20160519124757-20-131898/deretan-kisah-mengerikan-pemerkosaan-massal-mei-1998

Zilcosky, J. (2016). Uncanny encounters: Literature, psychoanalysis, and the end of alterity. Northwestern University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv47w902