Factors of Ethnic Distance: A Systematic Scoping Review

Miha Šlebir; Rok Zupančič

doi:10.29333/ejecs/1936

Authors

Miha Šlebir University of Ljubljana https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7152-8097
Rok Zupančič University of Ljubljana https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1963-2668

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/1936

Keywords:

ethnic distance, social distance, Bogardus scale, ethnic factors, ethnic variables

Abstract

Identifying factors determining ethnic distance is a perennial quest in ethnic studies. This is important not only from a theoretical perspective but also as a basis for developing practical interventions aimed at decreasing ethnic distance, which could, in turn, lead to increased tolerance and social peace. Building on existing research, we conducted a systematic scoping review of 30 studies to identify prevalent factors and variables that significantly impact individuals’ ethnic distance. According to our study, the most relevant variables are gender, education, income, age, interethnic contact, war experience, following news in the media, religious commitment, religious denomination, and political orientation. The analysis has shown that these variables can be grouped into four distinct factors: sociodemography, exposure, religion, and politics. However, none of the factors and variables identified were found to be universally applicable, as the cause of ethnic distance is multifactorial and context-dependent. We mapped the characteristics of existing studies, focusing on any indication of psychological mechanisms driving the changes in interethnic (in)tolerance. Most of the studies reviewed were based on the Bogardus scale, a commonly used tool for measuring ethnic distance.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Miha Šlebir, University of Ljubljana

Dr Miha Šlebir is an associate member of the Defense Research Centre at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. His research interests include military operations, disaster response, and peacebuilding.

Rok Zupančič, University of Ljubljana

Dr Rok Zupančič is a professor and researcher at the Defense Research Centre at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. His main areas of interest are conflict prevention and peacebuilding in Southeastern Europe.

References

Aboud, F. E., & Skerry, S. A. (1984). The development of ethnic attitudes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(1), 3–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002184015001001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002184015001001

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.

Banovac, B. (2009). Imagining the others: Dynamics of conflict and peace in multiethnic areas in Croatia. Revija za Sociologiju, 40(3–4), 183–209. https://hrcak.srce.hr/48988

Banovac, B., & Boneta, Ž. (2006). Ethnic distance and social (dis)integration of local communities. Revija za sociologiju, 37(1–2), 21–46. https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/20342

Brinkerhoff, M. B., & Jacob, J. C. (1994). Racial, ethnic and religious social distance in Surinam: An exploration of the “strategic alliance hypothesis” in a Caribbean community. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 17(4), 636–661. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1994.9993844 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.1994.9993844

Bešić, M. (2019a). Etnička distanca u Crnoj Gori deset godina nakon sticanja nezavisnosti [Ethnic distance in Montenegro 10 years after gaining independence]. Stanovništvo, 57(1), 1–25. https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?id=0038-982X1900002B

Bešić, M. (2019b). Ethnic relations in Montenegro twelve years after gaining independence. Socioloski pregled, 53(3), 812–835. https://doi.org/10.5937/socpreg53-22481 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5937/socpreg53-22481

Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority-group relations. Wiley.

Bogardus, E. S. (1925). Measuring social distances. Journal of Applied Sociology, 9, 299–308.

Bogardus, E. S. (1959). Social distance. The Antioch Press.

Booth, A., Papaioannou, D., & Sutton, A. (2012). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review. SAGE Publications.

Brown, R., & Hewstone, M. (2005). An integrative theory of intergroup contact. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 255–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0065-2601(05)37005-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(05)37005-5

Butler, D. M., & Tavits, M. (2017). Does the hijab increase representatives’ perceptions of social distance? The Journal of Politics, 79(2), 727–731. https://doi.org/10.1086/690817 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/690817

Djordjević, A., & Zupančič, R. (2024). ‘Undivided’ city in a divided society: Explaining the peaceful coexistence of Albanians and Serbs in Kamenicë/Kamenica, Kosovo. Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2024.2324550 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2024.2324550

Donnellan, M. B., & Lucas, R. E. (2008). Age differences in the big five across the life span: Evidence from two national samples. Psychology and Aging, 23(3), 558–566. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012897

Fedor, C.-G. (2021). Social distances in a multi ethnic region. Social Research Reports, 13(1), 49–57. https://doi.org/10.33788/srr13.1.5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33788/srr13.1.5

Hello, E., Scheepers, P., Vermulst, A., & Gerris, J. R. M. (2004). Association between educational attainment and ethnic distance in young adults: Socialization by schools or parents? Acta Sociologica, 47(3), 253–275. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4195034 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699304046222

Hello, E., Scheepers, P., & Sleegers, P. (2006). Why the more educated are less inclined to keep ethnic distance: An empirical test of four explanations. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 29(5), 959–985. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870600814015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870600814015

Hindriks, P., Verkuyten, M., & Coenders, M. (2014). Interminority attitudes: The roles of ethnic and national identification, contact, and multiculturalism. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77(1), 54–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272513511469 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272513511469

Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 373–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057

Jackman, M. R. (1977). Prejudice, tolerance, and attitudes toward ethnic groups. Social Science Research, 6(2), 145–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/0049-089x(77)90005-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0049-089X(77)90005-9

Jeong, H. ok. (2017). South Korean attitudes toward Muslims: Revealing the impact of religious tolerance. Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, 28(3), 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2016.1208996 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09596410.2016.1208996

Kim, H. J., Yoo, H. Y., & Chung, Y. K. (2015). Social distance towards North Korean refugees in South Korean society. Korea Observer, 46(2), 295–320.

Koc, Y., & Anderson, J. R. (2018). Social distance toward Syrian refugees: The role of intergroup anxiety in facilitating positive relations. Journal of Social Issues, 74(4), 790–811. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12299 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12299

Kočan, F., Vuga Beršnak, J., & Zupančič, R. (2024). When structural factors that cause interethnic violence work in favour of peace: The story of Baljvine, a warless Bosnian-Herzegovinian peace mosaic. Journal of International Relations & Development. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-024-00331-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-024-00331-8

Kočan, F., & Zupančič, R. (2024). Capturing post-conflict anxieties: Towards an analytical framework. Peacebuilding, 12(1), 120–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2023.2184116 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21647259.2023.2184116

Kuhar, M., Bolko, I., & Zupančič, R. (2023). Trauma-informed approach for bridging ethnic distance in post-conflict societies: A pilot study and intervention evaluation. Advances in Methodology and Statistics, 20(1), 57–75. https://doi.org/10.51936/dswp1546 DOI: https://doi.org/10.51936/dswp1546

Kuzmin, K., Petrova, L., & Popov, D. (2015). Migration and social distance: Various ethnic groups as perceived by the Ural’s schoolchildren and their parents. IDE Journal, 2(3). https://www.ide-journal.org/article/2015-volume-2-number-3-migration-and-social-distance-various-ethnic-groups-as-perceived-by-the-urals-schoolchildren-and-their-parents/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.53308/ide.v2i3.177

Lammers, J., Galinsky, A. D., Gordijn, E. H., & Otten, S. (2012). Power increases social distance. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(3), 282–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611418679 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611418679

Leckelt, M., Richter, D., Schröder, C., Küfner, A. C. P., Grabka, M. M., & Back, M. D. (2018). The rich are different: Unravelling the perceived and self‐reported personality profiles of high‐net‐worth individuals. British Journal of Psychology, 110(4), 769–789. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12360 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12360

Leino, M., & Himmelroos, S. (2019). How context shapes acceptance of immigrants: The link between affective social distance and locational distance. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 43(10), 1890–1908. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2019.1665696 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2019.1665696

Mak, S., & Thomas, A. (2022). Steps for conducting a scoping review. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 14(5), 565–567. https://doi.org/10.4300/jgme-d-22-00621.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-22-00621.1

Malešević, S., & Uzelac, G. (1997). Ethnic distance, power and war: The case of Croatian students. Nations and Nationalism, 3(2), 291–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1997.00291.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1997.00291.x

Mather, D. M., Jones, S. W., & Moats, S. (2017). Improving upon Bogardus: Creating a more sensitive and dynamic social distance scale. Survey Practice, 10(4), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.29115/sp-2017-0026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29115/SP-2017-0026

Mihić, V., & Mihić-Lisul, I. (2003). Poznajem, prihvatam, poštujem-istraživanje etničke distanca kod dece I njihovih roditelja [Ethnic distance in primary school children and their parents]. Psihologija, 36(2), 167–182. https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0048-57050302167M DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/PSI0302167M

Pal, T., (2004). The dichotomy of the Romanian society: Social distance between ethnic Romanians and Hungarians in Romania. The Discourse of Sociological Practice, 6(1), 93–106.

Park, R. E. (1924). The concept of social distance as applied to the study of racial attitudes and racial relations. Journal of Applied Sociology, 8, 339–344. https://brocku.ca/MeadProject/Park/Park_1924.html

Parrillo, V. N., & Donoghue, C. (2005). Updating the Bogardus social distance studies: A new national survey. The Social Science Journal, 42(2), 257–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2005.03.011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2005.03.011

Parrillo, V. N., & Donoghue, C. (2013). The national social distance study: Ten years later. Sociological Forum, 28(3), 597–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12039

Photiadis, J. D., & Biggar, J. (1962). Religiosity, education, and ethnic distance. American Journal of Sociology, 67(6), 666–672. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2774849 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/223231

Qian, Z., & Lichter, D. T. (2007). Social boundaries and marital assimilation: Interpreting trends in racial and ethnic intermarriage. American Sociological Review, 72(1), 68–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200104

Sassenberg, K., & Vliek, M. L. W. (Eds.). (2019). Social psychology in action. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13788-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13788-5

Sekulić, D., Massey, G., & Hodson, R. (2006). Ethnic intolerance and ethnic conflict in the dissolution of Yugoslavia. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 29(5), 797–827. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870600814247 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870600814247

Smrke, M. (2019). Religiosity and generosity toward migrants. Two Homelands, 50, 199–216. https://doi.org/10.3986/dd.v2019i50.7466 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3986/dd.v2019i50.7466

Stojanovski, S., & Poposka, Z. (2020). Macedonians and Albanians: Stereotypes and ethnic distance. Balkan Social Science Review, 15, 297–327. https://doi.org/10.46763/bssr20150298s DOI: https://doi.org/10.46763/BSSR20150298s

Storm, I., Sobolewska, M., & Ford, R. (2017). Is ethnic prejudice declining in Britain? Change in social distance attitudes among ethnic majority and minority Britons. The British Journal of Sociology, 68(3), 410–434. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12250 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12250

Strayhorn, T. L. (2022). Exploring Ethnic Minority First-Year College Students’ Well-Being and Sense of Belonging: A Qualitative Investigation of a Brief Intervention. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 6(1), 42-58. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/11422 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/11422

Strayhorn, T. (2023). “Tellin’ the Truth in Their Own Words”: A Critical Race Qualitative Analysis of Ethnic Minority Law School Students’ Experiences. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 7(1), 25-45. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12729 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/12729

Stupar, S., van de Vijver, F. J. R., Te Lindert, A., & Fontaine, J. R. J. (2014). Multicultural attitudes mediate the relation between personality and perceived ethnic outgroup distance in the Netherlands. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 38, 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.05.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.05.002

Tawa, J., Negrón, R., Suyemoto, K. L., & Carter, A. S. (2015). The effect of resource competition on Blacks’ and Asians’ social distance using a virtual world methodology. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 18(6), 761–777. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214561694 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430214561694

Voas, D. (2015). Sociology of religion. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences (2nd ed., pp. 359–365). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.84041-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.84041-6

Vujević Hećimović, G., Brajović, S., & Ilin, K. (2010). Socijalna distanca građana Hrvatske prema narodima s područja bivše Jugoslavije s obzirom na vrijeme i neka socio-demografska obilježja [Socijalna distanca građana Hrvatske prema narodima s područja bivše Jugoslavije s obzirom na vrijeme i neka socio-demografska obilježja]. Suvremena psihologija, 13(1), 137–154. https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/123584

War Childhood Museum. (n.d.). The idea, mission and vision. https://warchildhood.org/the-idea-mission-and-vision/

Winnick, T. A. (2019). Islamophobia: Social distance, avoidance, and threat. Sociological Spectrum, 39(6), 359–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2019.1704668 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2019.1704668

Wiseman, R. (2015). Social distance in settled communities the conceptual metaphor, social distance is physical distance, in action. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 23(4), 1023–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-015-9256-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-015-9256-9

Zupančič, R., Kočan, F., & Vuga, J. (2021). Ethnic distancing through aesthetics in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Appraising the limits of art as a peacebuilding tool with a socio-psychological experiment. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 21(1), 101–123. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2020.1867410 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2020.1867410