Views of Adolescent Bhutanese Refugees on Home Learning During School Shutdown Across the Period of COVID-19
Abstract views: 2372 / PDF downloads: 384
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/828Keywords:
adolescent refugees, COVID-19, education, home learning, social capital.Abstract
The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is now a global crisis, resulting in the intermittent closure of many schools, worldwide. The school closures are believed to have affected adolescents’ education, particularly for vulnerable adolescents including those from a refugee-background. The study explores the home learning experiences of adolescent Bhutanese refugees in Tasmania, Australia and draws on social capital theory to interpret findings. Interviews with adolescent Bhutanese refugees revealed four overarching themes: disengagement from learning, the experience of isolation, the complexity of family relationships and motivation through relationships. This article makes an important practical and theoretical contribution to home learning through challenging Putnam’s binary distinction between bonding and bridging and suggesting alternative conceptualisations based on the role of bonding in the creation of bridging social capital. These findings have potential implications for the development of mitigation measures to support refugee-background students under extraordinary circumstances.
Downloads
References
Adelman, I., & Morris, C. T. (1967). Society, politics, and economic development: A quantitative approach. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Ager, A., & Strang, A. (2008). Understanding integration: A conceptual framework. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(2), 166-191. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fen016
Agnitsch, K., Flora, J., & Ryan, V. (2006). Bonding and bridging social capital: The interactive effects on community action. Community Development, 37(1), 36-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330609490153
Ainsworth, S., Prain, V., & Tytler, R. (2011). Drawing to learn science. Science, 333(6046), 1096-1097. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204153
Andrew, A., Cattan, S., Costa-Dias, M., Farquharson, C., Kraftman, L., Krutikova, S., Phimister, A., & Sevilla, A. (2020a). Inequalities in children's experiences of home learning during the COVID‐19 lockdown in England. Fiscal Studies, 41(3), 653-683.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-5890.12240
Andrew, A., Cattan, S., Costa-Dias, M., Farquharson, C., Kraftman, L., Krutikova, S., Phimister, A., & Sevilla, A. (2020b). Learning during the lockdown: Real-time data on children's experiences during home learning. https://ifs.org.uk/publications/14848
Armitage, R., & Nellums, L. B. (2020). Considering inequalities in the school closure response to COVID-19. The Lancet Global Health, 8(5), e644. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30116-9
Australian Institute of Family Studies (2016). Building a new life in Australia: The longitudinal study of humanitarian migrants. Findings from the first three waves. Australian Institute of Family Studies. https://www.dss.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/03_2018/d17_1138305_bnla_report_final_word_accessible_version.pdf
Azevedo, J. P., Hasan, A., Goldemberg, D., Iqbal, S. A., & Geven, K. M. (2020). Simulating the potential impacts of COVID-19 school closures on schooling and learning outcomes: A set of global estimates. (Policy Research Working Paper No. 9284). World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-9446
Beugelsdijk, S., & Smulders, S. (2009). Bonding and bridging social capital and economic growth. Tilburg University.
Bigelow, M. H. (2007). Social and cultural capital at school: The case of a Somali teenage girl. Literacy Institute at Virginia Commonwealth University, 7-22. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=av_workssite_acquisition#page=8
Block, K., Cross, S., Riggs, E., & Gibbs, L. (2014). Supporting schools to create an inclusive environment for refugee students. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(12), 1337-1355. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2014.899636
Bol, T. (2020). Inequality in home schooling during the Corona crisis in the Netherlands. First results from the LISS Panel. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/hf32q
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241-285). Greenwood Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press.
Braun, V., Clarke, V., Hayfield, N., & Terry, G. (2019). Thematic analysis. In P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in health social sciences (pp. 843-860). Springer.
Brown, K. M., Dilley, R., & Marshall, K. (2008). Using a head-mounted video camera to understand social worlds and experiences. Sociological Research Online, 13(6), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.5153/sro.1818
Brown, N., Te Riele, K., Shelley, B., & Woodroffe, J. (2020). Learning at home during COVID-19: Effects on vulnerable young Australians. http://www.wscf.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Learning-at-home-during-COVID-19-Effects-on-vulnerable-young-Australians.pdf
Byun, S. Y., Meece, J. L., Irvin, M. J., & Hutchins, B. C. (2012). The role of social capital in educational aspirations of rural youth. Rural Sociology, 77(3), 355-379. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.2012.00086.x
Cederberg, M. (2012). Migrant networks and beyond: Exploring the value of the notion of social capital for making sense of ethnic inequalities. Acta Sociologica, 55(1), 59-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699311427746
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital and the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, (Supplement S 95-S120), 95-119. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943
Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Harvard University Press.
Correa-Velez, I., Gifford, S. M., & Barnett, A. G. (2010). Longing to belong: Social inclusion and wellbeing among youth with refugee backgrounds in the first three years in Melbourne, Australia. Social Science and Medicine, 71(8), 1399-1408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.07.018
Correa-Velez, I., Gifford, S. M., McMichael, C., & Sampson, R. (2017). Predictors of secondary school completion among refugee youth 8 to 9 years after resettlement in Melbourne, Australia. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 18(3), 791-805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-016-0503-z
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE Publication.
Darbyshire, P., MacDougall, C., & Schiller, W. (2005). Multiple methods in qualitative research with children: More insight or just more? Qualitative Research, 5(4), 417-436. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794105056921
De Heer, N., Due, C., Riggs, D. W., & Augoustinos, M. (2016). “It will be hard because I will have to learn lots of English”: Experiences of education for children newly arrived in Australia. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(3), 297-319.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2015.1023232
Didkowsky, N., Ungar, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2010). Using visual methods to capture embedded processes of resilience for youth across cultures and contexts. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(1), 12-18.
Doidge, M., Keech, M., & Sandri, E. (2020). Active integration: Sport clubs taking an active role in the integration of refugees. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 12(2), 305-319. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2020.1717580
Dong, C., Cao, S., & Li, H. (2020). Young children's online learning during COVID-19 pandemic: Chinese parents' beliefs and attitudes. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105440
Drane, C. F., Vernon, L., & O'Shea, S. (2021). Vulnerable learners in the age of COVID-19: A scoping review. The Australian Educational Researcher, 48, 585-604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-020-00409-5
Dryden-Peterson, S. (2015). The educational experiences of refugee children in countries of first asylum. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.lowan.nl/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FCD_Dryen-Peterson-FINALWEB.pdf
Due, C., & Riggs, D. W. (2016). Care for children with migrant or refugee backgrounds in the school context. Children Australia, 42(3), 190-200. https://doi.org/10.1017/cha.2016.24
Edmonds, J., & Flahault, A. (2021). Refugees in Canada during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), 947. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18030947
Emerson, L., Fear, J., Fox, S., & Sanders, E. (2012). Parental engagement in learning and schooling: Lessons from research. http://www.familyengagementcircle.org.au/application/files/3414/9845/6720/parental-engagement-in-learning-and-schooling_4.pdf
Evans, S., Mikocka-Walus, A., Klas, A., Olive, L., Sciberras, E., Karantzas, G., & Westrupp, E. M. (2020). From “it has stopped our lives” to “spending more time together has strengthened bonds”: The varied experiences of Australian families during COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2906. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.588667
Geertz, C. (1973). Deep play: Notes on the Balinese cockfight. In the interpretation of cultures. Basic Books.
Harris, V., & Marlowe, J. (2011). Hard yards and high hopes: The educational challenges of African refugee university students in Australia. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 23(2), 186-196.
Hirschman, A. (1958). The strategy of economic development. Yale University Press.
Hommes, J., Rienties, B., DE Grave, W., Bos, G., Schuwirth, L., & Scherpbier, A. (2012). Visualising the invisible: A network approach to reveal the informal social side of student learning. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 17(5), 743-757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-012-9349-0
Hos, R. (2020). The lives, aspirations, and needs of refugee and immigrant students with interrupted formal education (SIFE) in a secondary newcomer program. Urban Education, 55(7), 1021-1044. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916666932
Isham, J. (1999). The effect of social capital on technology adoption: Evidence from rural Tanzania. Department of Economics.
Isik-Ercan, Z. (2012). In pursuit of a new perspective in the education of children of the refugees: Advocacy for the family. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12(4), 3025-3038. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1002997.pdf
Isik-Ercan, Z. (2015). Being Muslim and American: Turkish-American children negotiating their religious identities in school settings. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 18(2), 225-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.911162
Israel, G. D., & Beaulieu, L. J. (2004). Laying the foundation for employment: The role of social capital in educational achievement. Review of Regional Studies, 34(3), 260-287.
https://doi.org/10.52324/001c.8392
Jeanes, R., O'Connor, J., & Alfrey, L. (2015). Sport and the resettlement of young people from refugee backgrounds in Australia. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 39(6), 480-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723514558929
Jones, S. R., Torres, V., & Arminio, J. (2014). Negotiating the complexities of qualitative research: Fundamental elements and issues. Routledge.
Joyce, L., & Liamputtong, P. (2017). Acculturation stress and social support for young refugees in regional areas. Children and Youth Services Review, 77, 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.03.016
Kanu, Y. (2008). Educational needs and barriers for African refugee students in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Education, 31(4), 915-940.
Kia-Keating, M., & Ellis, B. H. (2007). Belonging and connection to school in resettlement: Young refugees, school belonging, and psychosocial adjustment. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 12(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104507071052
Kollender, E., & Nimer, M. (2020). Long-term exclusionary effects of COVID-19 for refugee children in the German and Turkish education systems: A comparative perspective. https://ipc.sabanciuniv.edu/Content/Images/CKeditorImages/20200708-02075629.pdf
Lamb, S., Maire, Q., Doecke, E., Macklin, S., Noble, K., & Pilcher, S. (2020). Impact of learning from home on educational outcomes for disadvantaged children. Centre for International Research on Education Systems and the Mitchell Institute, Victoria University. https://vuir.vu.edu.au/40386/1/Submission%20to%20Government_Impact%20of%20Learning%20from%20Home.pdf
Lau, W., Silove, D., Edwards, B., Forbes, D., Bryant, R., Mcfarlane, A., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Steel, Z., Nickerson, A., Van Hooff, M., & Felmingham, K. (2018). Adjustment of refugee children and adolescents in Australia: Outcomes from wave three of the Building a New Life in Australia study. BMC Medicine, 16(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1124-5
Liamputtong, P. (2007). Researching the vulnerable: A guide to sensitive research methods. SAGE Publication.
Liamputtong, P. (2020). Qualitative research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Lin, N. (1999). Social networks and status attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, 467-487. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.25.1.467
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. SAGE Publication.
Liu, J. J., Bao, Y., Huang, X., Shi, J., & Lu, L. (2020). Mental health considerations for children quarantined because of COVID-19. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(5), 347–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30096-1
Major, J., Wilkinson, J., Langat, K., & Santoro, N. (2013). Sudanese young people of refugee background in rural and regional Australia: Social capital and education success. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 23(3), 95-105. https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.845809019872687
Maldonado, J. E., & De Witte, K. (2020). The effect of school closures on standardised student test outcomes. British Educational Research Journal (Discussion Paper DPS20, 17). https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3754
Marshall, E. A., Butler, K., Roche, T., Cumming, J., & Taknint, J. T. (2016). Refugee youth: A review of mental health counselling issues and practices. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 57(4), 308.
https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000068
Masters, G. N., Taylor-Guy, P., Fraillon, J., & Chase, A. M. (2020). Ministerial briefing paper on evidence of the likely impact on educational outcomes of vulnerable children learning at home during COVID-19. https://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=learning_processes
McLennan, C., Mercieca, D., & Mercieca, D. (2020). What can I do? Teachers, students and families in relationship during COVID-19 lockdown in Scotland. Malta Review of Educational Research, 14(2), 163-181.
Miles, M.B., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Sage Publication.
Molla, T. (2019). Educational aspirations and experiences of refugee-background African youth in Australia: A case study. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 25(8), 877-895. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1588924
Morosanu, L. (2018). Researching migrants' diverse social relationships: From ethnic to cosmopolitan sociability? The Sociological Review, 66(1), 155-173.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026117703905
Morrice, L. (2007). Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: The significance of social capital. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370701219467
Mudwari, N., Cuskelly, M., Murphy, C., Beasy, K., & Aryal, N. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on refugee-background students during school shut down in Australia: A call for action. Teachers and Curriculum 21(1), 71-76. https://doi.org/10.15663/tandc.v21i1.356
Muller, D. J. A. (2009). Parental engagement: Social and economic effects. Australian Parents Council. https://www.austparents.edu.au/
Mupenzi, A., Mude, W., & Baker, S. (2020). Reflections on COVID-19 and impacts on equitable participation: The case of culturally and linguistically diverse migrant and/or refugee (CALDM/R) students in Australian higher education. Higher Education Research and Development, 39(7), 1337-1341. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1824991
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533-544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y
Palmer, R., & Gasman, M. (2008). “It takes a village to raise a child”: The role of social capital in promoting academic success for African American men at a Black college. Journal of College Student Development, 49(1), 52-70. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2008.0002
Pastoor, L. D. W. (2017). Reconceptualising refugee education: Exploring the diverse learning contexts of unaccompanied young refugees upon resettlement. Intercultural Education, 28(2), 143-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2017.1295572
Pishghadam, R., & Zabihi, R. (2011). Parental education and social and cultural capital in academic achievement. International Journal of English Linguistics, 1(2), 50-57. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v1n2p50
Portes, A., & Landolt, P. (1996). The downside of social capital. The American Prospect, 26, 18-21. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/handle/10919/67453
Portes, A., & Vickstrom, E. (2011). Diversity, social capital, and cohesion. The Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 461-479. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150022
Primdahl, N. L., Borsch, A. S., Verelst, A., Jervelund, S. S., Derluyn, I., & Skovdal, M. (2021).“It's difficult to help when I am not sitting next to them”: How COVID-19 school closures interrupted teachers' care for newly arrived migrant and refugee learners in Denmark. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 16(1), 75-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450128.2020.1829228
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon and Schuster.
Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (2nd ed.). SAGE Publication.
Shakya, Y. B., Guruge, S., Hynie, M., Akbari, A., Malik, M., Htoo, S., Khogali, A., Mona, S. A., Murtaza, R., & Alley, S. (2010). Aspirations for higher education among newcomer refugee youth in Toronto: Expectations, challenges, and strategies. Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees, 27(2), 65-78. https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.34723
Skovdal, M., & Campbell, C. (2015). Beyond education: What role can schools play in the support and protection of children in extreme settings? International Journal of Educational Development, 41, 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2015.02.005
Strang, A. B., & Quinn, N. (2019). Integration or isolation? Refugees' social connections and wellbeing. Journal of Refugee Studies, 34(1), 328-353. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez040
Stura, C. (2019). “What makes us strong” - the role of sports clubs in facilitating integration of refugees. European Journal for Sport and Society, 16(2), 128-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/16138171.2019.1625584
Tang, J., Kim, S., & Haviland, D. (2013). Role of family, culture, and peers in the success of first-generation Cambodian American college students. Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement, 8(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.7771/2153-8999.1057
Taylor, S., & Sidhu, R. K. (2012). Supporting refugee students in schools: What constitutes inclusive education? International Journal of Inclusive Education 16(1), 39-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110903560085
Tyupa, S. (2011). A theoretical framework for back-translation as a quality assessment tool. New Voices in Translation Studies, 7(1), 35-46.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (2020). Adverse consequences of school closures. https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse/consequences
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2019). Stepping up: Refugee education in crisis. https://www.unhcr.org/steppingup/wp-content/uploads/sites/76/2019/09/Education-Report-2019-Final-web-9.pdf
Uptin, J., Wright, J., & Harwood, V. (2013). “It felt like I was a black dot on white paper”: Examining young former refugees' experience of entering Australian high schools. The Australian Educational Researcher, 40(1), 125-137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-012-0082-8
Viner, R. M., Russell, S. J., Croker, H., Packer, J., Ward, J., Stansfield, C., Mytton, O., Bonell, C., & Booy, R. (2020). School closure and management practices during coronavirus outbreaks including COVID-19: A rapid systematic review. The Lancet. Child & Adolescent Health, 4(5), 397–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30095-X
Wang, G., Zhang, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, J., & Jiang, F. (2020). Mitigate the effects of home confinement on children during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet, 395(10228), 945-947. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30547-X
Wessendorf, S., & Phillimore, J. (2019). New migrants' social integration, embedding and emplacement in superdiverse contexts. Sociology, 53(1), 123-138. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038518771843
Wilkinson, J., Santoro, N., & Major, J. (2017). Sudanese refugee youth and educational success: The role of church and youth group in supporting cultural and academic adjustment and schooling achievement. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 60, 210-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.04.003
Wright, S. (2007). Graphic-narrative play: Young children's authoring through drawing and telling. International Journal of Education and the Arts, 8(8), 1-28.
Zhou, M., & Kim, S. (2006). Community forces, social capital, and educational achievement: The case of supplementary education in the Chinese and Korean immigrant communities. Harvard Educational Review, 76(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.76.1.u08t548554882477
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
By submitting a manuscript to JECS, authors agree to transfer without charge the following rights to JECS upon acceptance of the manuscript: first worldwide publication rights and the right for JECS to grant permissions as JECS editors judge appropriate for the redistribution of the article, its abstract, and its metadata in professional indexing and reference services. Any revenues from such redistribution are used solely to support the continued publication and distribution of articles.
Accepted 2021-09-01
Published 2021-10-10