Pro-Biafran Activists and the call for a Referendum: A Sentiment Analysis of ‘Biafraexit’ on Twitter after UK’s vote to leave the European Union

Emmanuel Sunday Nwofe; Mark Goodall

doi:10.29333/ejecs/65

Authors

Emmanuel Sunday Nwofe The University of Bradford, UK
Mark Goodall The University of Bradford

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/65

Keywords:

Biafra, Biafraexit, Self-determination, Geo-ethnic politics, ethnic minority, Nigeria, state violence, insecurity

Abstract

In a society bonded by a concatenation of diverse ethno-nationalism, the struggle for inclusion and exclusion becomes particularly unavoidable. Common among the findings of researchers of ethnic identities is the potential for conflicts when inequalities and injustices, rooted in ethnicity and religious identities are the basis for allocation of powers and resources. This is more threatening when a particular ethnic group is signposted as a threat to other group and targeted for ill-treatment. In Nigeria, the Igbo ethnic group is characterized as an endangered group and has risen at one point to challenge inequalities, injustices and state-orchestrated violence against the ethnic society that led to Nigeria-Biafra war between 1967 and 1970. Fifty years after the war, the Igbo ethnic society is still grappling to be included in the Nigeria nation-building project. The implication is a deep-rooted grievance among the Igbo ethnic group that the wave of campaigns and social movement for the restoration of Biafra continued to reverberate in recent times. After the UK’s ‘Brexit’ vote, the pro-Biafra activists launched ‘Biafraexit’ on Twitter in the style of ‘Brexit’ for a referendum to exit Nigeria. The purpose of this paper is to examine the major sentiment of the people about the Biafra restoration 50 years after the Biafran war. Through a sentiment analysis of ‘Biafraexit’, ‘free Biafra’ hashtags and the ‘Biafra’ search term on Twitter, the paper examines to what extent the perception of insecurity of lives of the Igbos constitute major concern of proponents of Biafran independent on Twitter? How have the human right abuses of pro-Biafra activists under President Buhari’s rule facilitated feelings of insecurity, religious cleansing and Islamization among pro-Biafra activists? The implications of this for cohesive nation-building are discussed.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Emmanuel Sunday Nwofe, The University of Bradford, UK

A PhD student in Media studies at the University of Bradford, UK. His main research interest is in areas of political communication, Film studies and journalism. He is a member of Communication, Culture and Media research group. He joined the academics in 2012 at the Ebonyi State University Nigeria, where he tutors undergraduate modules in mass communication before embarking on a study leave to the UK. He obtained Masters in Film Studies, University of Bradford; Masters in Mass Communication, University of Nigeria Nsukka, and a Bachelor Degree in Mass Communication at the Ebonyi State University.

Mark Goodall, The University of Bradford

He is a Senior Lecturer and a programme leader of Film Studies and Digital Filmmaking in the school of Media, Design and Technology, University of Bradford, UK. His area of research is film history, specifically cult and experimental films of the 1960s and 1970s. He is an expert in the genre of the Italian 'mondo' film, a form of sensationalist documentary, and have delivered many conference papers and published many essays on the subject. He has co-directed and co-produced a feature film based on the short stories of supernatural horror writer Arthur Machen.

References

JaBrozz. (2015, July 23). Buhari: Constituencies that gave me 97% [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mm_VEkxyiKw.

Abati, R. (2017, June 13). Igbo-Haters, The Arewa Ultimatum And Our Nation. Igbolive.com. Retrieved from http://igbolive.com/igbo-haters-the-arewa-ultimatum-and-our-nation/

Adonu, C. (2017, May 30). IPOB’s sit-at-home order: Total compliance in Enugu. Vanguard. Retrieved from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/05/may-30-biafran-fallen-heros-markets-schools-banks-parks-deserted-ipob-sit-home-order/

Ahmed, M. (2016). Ethnicity, Identity and Group Vitality: A Study of Burushos of Srinagar. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 3(1), 1-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/51

Alubo, O. (2004). Citizenship and nation making in Nigeria: New challenges and contestations. Identity, culture and politics, 5(1), 135-161.

AmnestyInternational. (2016a, November 24). Nigeria: At least 150 peaceful pro-Biafra activists killed in chilling crackdown. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/11/peaceful-pro-biafra-activists-killed-in-chilling-crackdown/

AmnestyInternational. (2016b, June 10). Nigeria: Killing of unarmed pro-Biafra supporters by military must be urgently investigated. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/06/nigeria-killing-of-unarmed-pro-biafra-supporters-by-military-must-be-urgently-investigated/

Anthony, D. (2014). ‘Ours is a war of survival’: Biafra, Nigeria and arguments about genocide, 1966–70. Journal of Genocide Research, 16(2-3), 205-225. DOI: 10.1080/14623528.2014.936701

Ashcroft, R., & Bevir, M. (2016). Pluralism, National Identity and Citizenship: Britain after Brexit. The Political Quarterly, 87(3), 355-359. DOI: 10.1111/1467-923X.12293 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12293

Aydin, H. & Lafer, S. (2015). Educational Practices for a New Nigeria: An Exploratory Study. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 61(2), 126-146.

Aydin, H. (2013a). Educational Effectiveness of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges: A Qualitative Study. SAGE-OPEN, 3 (1-6), 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013489693

Aydin, H. (2013). Educational reform in Nigeria: the case of Multicultural Education for Peace, Love, and Tolerance. South African Journal of Education, 33(1), 1-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v33n1a611

Bartkus, V. O. (1999). The dynamic of secession (Vol. 64): Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511491214

BBC. (2011). Nigeria election violence 'left more than 500 dead'. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13184298

Campbell, J. (2015). Biafran dream. Retrieved from ttp://blogs.cfr.org/campbell/2015/12/08/biafra-dream/

Canci, H., & Odukoya, O. A. (2016). Ethnic and religious crises in Nigeria: a specific analysis upon identities (1999-2013). African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 16(1), 87-110.

Conversation, T. (2017). How to resist the political rise of the global nativist. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/how-to-resist-the-political-rise-of-the-global-nativist-70173

Cramer, K. J. (2016). The politics of resentment: Rural consciousness in Wisconsin and the rise of Scott Walker: University of Chicago Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226349251.001.0001

Doron, R. (2014). Marketing genocide: Biafran propaganda strategies during the Nigerian civil war, 1967–70. Journal of Genocide Research, 16(2-3), 227-246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2014.936702

Duruji, M. M. (2009). Social inequity, democratic transition and the Igbo nationalism resurgence in Nigeria. African journal of political science and international relations, 3(2), 54.

Evans, G. (2017). Brexit Britain: Why we are all postindustrial now. American Ethnologist, 44(2), 215-219. DOI: 10.1111/amet.12470 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12470

Goodwin, M. J., & Heath, O. (2016). The 2016 Referendum, Brexit and the Left Behind: An Aggregate‐level Analysis of the Result. The Political Quarterly, 87(3), 323-332. DOI: 10.1111/1467-923X.12285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12285

Gusterson, H. (2017). From Brexit to Trump: Anthropology and the rise of nationalist populism. American Ethnologist, 44(2), 209-214. DOI: 10.1111/amet.12469 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12469

Harff, B., & Gurr, T. R. (2004). Ethnic conflict in world politics. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 23(3).

Heerten, L., & Moses, A. D. (2014). The Nigeria–Biafra war: postcolonial conflict and the question of genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 16(2-3), 169-203. DOI: 10.1080/14623528.2014.936700 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2014.936700

Igwara, O. (2001). Dominance and difference: rival visions of ethnicity in Nigeria. Ethnic and racial studies, 24(1), 86-103. DOI: 10.1080/014198701750052514 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/014198701750052514

Isah, H., Trundle, P., & Neagu, D. (2014). Social media analysis for product safety using text mining and sentiment analysis. Paper presented at the 2014 14th UK Workshop on Computational Intelligence (UKCI). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/UKCI.2014.6930158

Kelman, H. C. (1997). Negotiating National Identity and Self‐Determination in Ethnic Conflicts: The Choice Between Pluralism and Ethnic Cleansing. Negotiation Journal, 13(4), 327-340. DOI: 10.1111/j.1571-9979.1997.tb00137.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1571-9979.1997.tb00137.x

Kim, S., Bak, J., & Oh, A. H. (2012). Do You Feel What I Feel? Social Aspects of Emotions in Twitter Conversations. Paper presented at the ICWSM.

Kymlicka, W., & Buchanan, A. (1992). Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce from Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec: JSTOR.

Murrey, D. (2017, 4 February 2017). Who will protect Nigeria’s northern Christians? The Spectator.

Nnamani, T. (2016). Between Ethics and Politics: Lessons from Biafra: The Role of the International Community and Its Sociopolitical Implications: AuthorHouse.

Nwachukwu, J. O. (2017, May 8). Why every Nigerian is a Biafran – Prof. Pat Utomi. Daily Post. Retrieved from http://dailypost.ng/2017/05/08/every-nigerian-biafran-prof-pat-utomi/

Nwankwo, A. A. (2016, January 11, 2016). Muhammadu buhari, Ndigbo and The biafra Agitation: Matters Arising, Opinion. Sahara Reporters Retrieved from http://saharareporters.com/2016/01/11/muhammadu-buhari-ndigbo-and-biafra-agitation-matters-arising-arthur-agwuncha-nwankwo

Okolie, E. (2017). Biafra: Brexit Versus Biafrexit: A Call To Save Biafrans from extinction. Retrieved from http://www.thebiafraherald.co/2017/03/biafra-brexit-versus-biafrexit-call-to_31.html

Okonta, I. (2014). ‘Biafra of the mind’: MASSOB and the mobilization of history. Journal of Genocide Research, 16(2-3), 355-378. DOI: 10.1080/14623528.2014.936710 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2014.936710

Okpanachi, E. (2010). Ethno-religious identity and conflict in northern Nigeria: understanding the dynamics of sharia in Kaduna and Kebbi states. IFRA-Nigeria e-Papers,(07).

Onuoha, G. (2013a). The fractured multi-ethnic state: contemporary Igbo quest for self-determination in Nigeria. African Identities, 11(1), 19-32. DOI: 10.1080/14725843.2013.775838

Onuoha, G. (2013b). The presence of the past: youth, memory making and the politics of self-determination in southeastern Nigeria. Ethnic and racial studies, 36(12), 2182-2199. DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2012.699087 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2012.699087

Opejobi, S. (2017, May 30). Biafra sit-at-home: Compliance with order shows Igbos want their nation – IPOB. Daily Post. Retrieved from http://dailypost.ng/2017/05/30/biafra-sit-home-compliance-order-shows-igbos-want-nation-ipob/

Osaghae, E. (2003). Explaining the changing patterns of ethnic politics in Nigeria. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 9(3), 54-73. DOI: 10.1080/13537110412331301475 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13537110412331301475

Osaghae, E. E., & Suberu, R. T. (2005). A history of identities, violence and stability in Nigeria: Centre for Research on Inequality, Human Security and Ethnicity, University of Oxford Oxford.

Ozfidan, B., & Ugurlu, O. (2015). The Idea Of Race And Racial Differences. Electronic International Journal of Education, Arts, and Science, 1(1), 85-98.

Perspective, E. (2016). Buhari refuses to watch shooting of unarmed pro Biafra protesters: Aljazeera English.

Phinney, J. S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well‐being: An interactional perspective. Journal of social issues, 57(3), 493-510. DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00225 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00225

Shafiei, M., Wang, S., Zhang, R., Milios, E., Tang, B., Tougas, J., & Spiteri, R. (2007). Document representation and dimension reduction for text clustering. Paper presented at the Data Engineering Workshop, 2007 IEEE 23rd International Conference on. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDEW.2007.4401066

Shah, M., Suliman, M., Ullah, A., & Jamal, H. (2016). Ethnicity Based Social Exclusion of Nomads in Khyber District Malakand, Pakhtunkhwa-Pakistan. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies, 3(1), 11-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/41

Simpson, B. (2014). The Biafran secession and the limits of self-determination. Journal of Genocide Research, 16(2-3), 337-354. DOI: 10.1080/14623528.2014.936708 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2014.936708

Sjögren, A. (2015). Territorialising identity, authority and conflict in Africa: an introduction. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 33(2), 163-170. DOI: DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2015.1065577

1080/02589001.2015.1065577

Strapparava, C., & Valitutti, A. (2004). WordNet Affect: an Affective Extension of WordNet. Paper presented at the LREC.

Tauna, A. (2017, April 18). Southern Kaduna killings: We hold El-Rufai responsible – Catholic Church. Daily Post. Retrieved from http://dailypost.ng/2017/04/18/southern-kaduna-killings-hold-el-rufai-responsible-catholic-church/

Ukiwo, U. (2005). The study of ethnicity in Nigeria. Oxford Development Studies, 33(1), 7-23. DOI: 10.1080/13600810500099592 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13600810500099592

Ukiwo, U. (2009). Violence, identity mobilization and the reimagining of Biafra. Africa Development, 34(1). DOI: 10.4314/ad.v34i1.57353 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/ad.v34i1.57353

Westin, C., Bastos, J., & Dahinden, J. (2010). Identity processes and dynamics in multi-ethnic Europe: Amsterdam University Press Amsterdam, Netherlands. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089640468

Wilson, T., Wiebe, J., & Hoffmann, P. (2005). Recognizing contextual polarity in phrase-level sentiment analysis. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the conference on human language technology and empirical methods in natural language processing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3115/1220575.1220619

Yashar, D. J. (1998). Contesting citizenship: Indigenous movements and democracy in Latin America. Comparative politics, 23-42. DOI: 10.2307/422104 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/422104